Appendix 6 - Medical Aspects of Crucifixion
This brief overview of the medical implications of crucifixion was adapted from the book, “The Agony of Love,” written by Dr. Chuck Missler and Dr. Mark Eastman (MD).[1]
Struck in the Face
After being arrested Jesus was struck in face (see John 18:22), blindfolded, and struck in the face again repeatedly by Temple guards (see Luke 22:63-65). Blows to the face such as these would cause severe facial bruising and cause eyelids to be swollen almost shut. The result would be that he was probably unrecognizable. This was foretold by Isaiah 700 years before, “As many were astonished at you—his appearance was so marred, beyond human semblance, and his form beyond that of the children of mankind” (Isaiah 52:14). Even though not mentioned in the New Testament, many believe based on the prophecy of Isaiah 50:6 that Jesus’ beard was brutally ripped from His face making Him even more disfigured and unrecognizable. Isaiah wrote, “I gave my back to those who strike, and my cheeks to those who pull out the beard; I hid not my face from disgrace and spitting.”
The Scourging
It was a Roman tradition to flog a criminal before he was to be crucified. This typically involved using a whip with several leather thongs, each approximately 18-24 inches long, with bits of metal, bone, or glass embedded in the leather. The effects of flogging were staggering as many people died just from the scourging. Their skin and muscle would have been shredded and torn away from the back, all while losing large volumes of blood.
The Crucifixion
Crucifixion was first utilized by the Persians between 300-400 B.C. The Romans enthusiastically embraced crucifixion as it was not only a humiliating and painful death, but the agonizingly slow and public display provided a way to further subjugate its citizens. The most common type of cross in the first century was called “crux commissa,” which consisted of an upright pole permanently fixed in the ground, called the stipe, and a crossbar, called the patibulum (typically weighing 75-100 pounds), attached to the top, creating a shape like the Greek letter Tau (or T).
For centuries, most artists rendered the crucifixion of Jesus with nails in His hands. However, anatomical studies have shown that this will not support the weight of an adult male. Archaeological discoveries have shown that the nails were placed between the radius, ulna, and carpal bones. By this manner no bones would be broken. The piercing of the hands and the feet was prophesied hundreds of years before the invention of crucifixion by the Persians, “For dogs encompass me; a company of evildoers encircles me; they have pierced my hands and feet.” (Psalm 22:16)
After bending their knees, the feet held in an extreme position, the feet were then nailed, usually with just one nail, to the stipe, between the second and third metatarsal bones. The result was that the individual was pinned in place with the knees bent, bearing full weight on the nails. This was an incredibly difficult position to maintain due to strain on the thigh muscles.
Jesus’ time on the cross was graphically described in Psalm 22, “I am poured out like water, and all my bones are out of joint; my heart is like wax; it is melted within my breast; my strength is dried up like a potsherd, and my tongue sticks to my jaws; you lay me in the dust of death.” (Psalm 22:14-15) Dehydration causes the tongue to “cling” to the roof of the mouth. Heart failure follows the dehydration, along with asphyxiation, and respiratory collapse.
Physiological Effects
Flogging
Severe dehydration due to blood loss.
Orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure).
Muscle tremors and tetany.
Nailing the Hands
Paralysis of median nerve.
Unimaginable pain at first, then paralysis and numbness.
Nailing the Feet
Paralysis of deep peroneal nerve of the feet.
Respiratory effects
Inability to exhale fully, creating hypercarbia (increased carbon dioxide). Muscle tetany creates a vicious cycle. To properly exhale required lifting the body. Each respiratory effort required so much muscular effort that muscle fatigue would cause the victim to die by asphyxia.
Cause of Death
The primary cause of death by crucifixion is asphyxiation. That is, the victim slowly suffocates until they are dead.
Other contributing factors include:
hypovolemic shock
exhaustion
dehydration
stress induced arrhythmias
congestive heart failure
pericardial and pleural effusions
cardiac rupture
Roman solders were professional executioners. To verify death they pierced the side, having blood and water proves that Jesus was dead because when death occurs the blood begins to separate into serum and cellular components.
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[1] Missler, C; Eastman, Dr. M. (2018) The Agony of Love: Six Hours in Eternity. Coeur d’Alene, ID. Koinonia House.