Chapter Eleven
Clean and Unclean Animals
The next five chapters of the book of Leviticus may not turn your stomach like the first seven chapters may have done, but they are equally difficult to understand. To begin with, today’s readers cannot relate to these restrictions since they no longer apply to Christian believers. In addition, through the years, there has been significant debate regarding interpretation.
11:1 And the LORD spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying to them, 2 “Speak to the people of Israel, saying, These are the living things that you may eat among all the animals that are on the earth.
Chapter eleven presents most of the regulations pertaining to what could be eaten and what should be avoided. Note the first verse, this section provides guidance for both the people of Israel and the priests. It was vital that the people understood the regulations, as they would be responsible for their own compliance, not the priests.
Back in Genesis 7:2 we were introduced to the concept of a “clean animal.” Neither prior to that time, nor up to this chapter, has there been any written classification as to what qualified an animal to be deemed, “clean.”[1] Most believe that the information was well-known verbally (often called the “oral law”).[2] In Genesis chapter seven a clean animal would have been one acceptable to God for sacrifices, not consumption, since at that time they were prohibited to consume any meat. In Genesis 9:3, after surviving the flood, mankind was then given permission to eat any animal: “Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you. And as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything.” There were no written restrictions until Leviticus chapter eleven.
11:3 Whatever parts the hoof and is cloven-footed and chews the cud, among the animals, you may eat.
The identification of a clean animal is based on two characteristics, the cleaving of the hoof and the chewing of cud. The “cloven hoof” (also known as a cleft hoof, divided hoof or split hoof; one that is split into two ‘toes’) usually distinguishes the slower-moving domesticated tame animal from the single-hoofed swifter, wild animals. The chewing of cud (Hebrew phrase “mǎ·’ǎlǎṯ[3] gē·rā(h),”[4] essentially means to “ascend to crush,” or possibly one way to interpret would be to “regurgitate to chew”), refers to animals that chew their food later. Both the cloven hoof and the chewing of cud must be present for the animal to be considered to be clean to eat.
Modern science defines some animals as ruminants, referring to those animals that are not able to produce the enzymes needed to breakdown plant matter for digestion, requiring the food to be fermented first before digestion, which then requires the animal to regurgitate and rechew the food. Most ruminants have four types of stomachs. However, many no-ruminant animals also appear to be chewing their cud. The question that often is raised when studying this chapter is, what did God use as a criterion? Was it being a true four-stomached ruminant animal, or was the appearance of chewing the cud sufficient to determine compliance?
11:4 Nevertheless, among those that chew the cud or part the hoof, you shall not eat these: The camel, because it chews the cud but does not part the hoof, is unclean to you. 5 And the rock badger, because it chews the cud but does not part the hoof, is unclean to you. 6 And the hare, because it chews the cud but does not part the hoof, is unclean to you. 7 And the pig, because it parts the hoof and is cloven-footed but does not chew the cud, is unclean to you. 8 You shall not eat any of their flesh, and you shall not touch their carcasses; they are unclean to you.
Perhaps knowing the potential controversy over the wording, God selects four different animals as illustrations of how the regulation given in verse three works. He begins with the camel, saying it chews its cud, while camels ruminate (meaning that they chew their cud), they are not considered true ruminants using the modern definition, but since it does not have split hooves, it is therefore considered an unclean animal. The next animal is translated here as a “rock badger” (Hebrew word ‘šā·pān’,[5] refers to a type of rabbit, a pika, a coney, a hyrax, or a rock badger), described as a cud chewer but does not have cloven hooves, making it also unclean. There is significant debate, even among modern researchers, regarding the hyrax or rock badger, whether they chew their cud. The third example is the hare (Hebrew word ‘arnebet’,[6] which is often translated as a hare or rabbit, some believe it may be an unknown species of animal), it is also identified as a cud-chewing animal without split hooves, making it unclean. The fourth, and possibly the most well-known forbidden animal, is the pig. It has split hooves, but does not chew its cud, therefore it is also considered unclean.
It appears that the question regarding what God uses as a criterion, is based on the appearance of the animal chewing its cud, rather than if the animal truly is a ruminant. Sadly, many people quickly read these verses and quickly jump to the conclusion that the Bible is incorrect based on modern-day science, when in fact the supposed contradiction or error is addressed in the text.
11:9 “These you may eat, of all that are in the waters. Everything in the waters that has fins and scales, whether in the seas or in the rivers, you may eat. 10 But anything in the seas or the rivers that does not have fins and scales, of the swarming creatures in the waters and of the living creatures that are in the waters, is detestable to you. 11 You shall regard them as detestable; you shall not eat any of their flesh, and you shall detest their carcasses. 12 Everything in the waters that does not have fins and scales is detestable to you.
Regarding animals that live in the water, regardless if found in fresh water or the ocean, the requirements for a clean aquatic animal was that it was to have both fins and scales. Perhaps since this criterion is straightforward, examples were not required to be given. Any animal found in the water that does not have both is unclean and should be considered detestable to the people, including their dead bodies.
11:13 “And these you shall detest among the birds; they shall not be eaten; they are detestable: the eagle, the bearded vulture, the black vulture, 14 the kite, the falcon of any kind, 15 every raven of any kind, 16 the ostrich, the nighthawk, the sea gull, the hawk of any kind, 17 the little owl, the cormorant, the short-eared owl, 18 the barn owl, the tawny owl, the carrion vulture, 19 the stork, the heron of any kind, the hoopoe, and the bat.
No criterion was given here to identify a clean bird, just a list of birds that were not to be eaten. Listed are the eagle (Hebrew word ‘ně·šěr’);[7] bearded vulture (Hebrew word ‘pě·rěs’);[8] black vulture (Hebrew word ‘ǒz·niy·yā(h)’,[9] can also be translated as a buzzard); kite (Hebrew ‘dā·’ā(h)’,[10] can also be translated as a vulture); falcon (Hebrew ‘ǎy·yā(h)’,[11] can also be translated as a kite); raven (Hebrew ‘ō·rēḇ’,[12] can also be translated as a crow); ostrich (Hebrew ‘yǎ·’ǎnā(h)’,[13] which can also be translated as a horned owl); nighthawk (Hebrew ‘tǎḥ·mās’,[14] referring to an owl or screeching owl); sea gull (Hebrew ‘šā’·ḥǎp’);[15] hawk (Hebrew ‘nēṣ’);[16] little owl (Hebrew ‘kôs’,[17] can also be translated as a pelican or a screech owl); cormorant (Hebrew ‘šā·lāḵ’);[18] short-eared owl (Hebrew ‘yǎn·šûp’,[19] can be translated as a great owl); barn owl (Hebrew ‘tin·šě’·měṯ’,[20] can be translated as a white owl, some texts incorrectly translate this word as a swan); tawny owl (Hebrew ‘qā·’āṯ’,[21] can also be translated as a pelican, desert owl or a cormorant); carrion vulture (Hebrew ‘rā·ḥām’,[22] can also be translated as an osprey or an eagle); stork (Hebrew ‘ḥǎsî·ḏā(h)’,[23] some texts translate as a ostrich); heron (Hebrew ‘ǎnā·pā(h)’,[24] can be translated as a plover, cormorant); hoopoe (Hebrew ‘dû·ḵî·pǎṯ’,[25] can also be translated as a lapwing); and the bat (Hebrew ‘ǎṭǎl·lēp’).[26] While the translations vary and some of the words being fully understood, it seems clear that the list of unclean birds are not what is referred today as “game birds.”
It is interesting to note that in Deuteronomy 14:11 we read, “You may eat all clean birds.” The only clean birds mentioned in Scripture are those considered acceptable for sacrifices, namely the pigeons and turtledoves. So where is the list of clean birds? There isn’t one, the rabbis recorded in the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Hullin (Folio 63B) give this explanation:
It was taught on Tannaite authority: Rabbi says, “It is apparent to the Creator that the [categories of] clean beasts outnumber the [categories of] unclean beasts. Therefore Scripture listed the clean beasts. It was apparent to the Creator that the [categories of] clean birds outnumber the [categories of] unclean birds. Therefore Scripture listed the unclean birds.” What novel point does this make? In accord with R. Huna in the name of Rab [it makes a novel point]. And some say, in accord with R. Huna in the name of Rab in the name of R. Meir, “A person should always teach something to his student in the most concise way possible.”
Said R. Isaac, “A clean bird may be eaten on the basis of the received tradition. The hunter is trusted to say, ‘This bird is clean. My master passed the tradition on to me.’” Said R. Yohanan, “And this is the case if he is expert in [identifying] them and their names.” It is consistent if you say that his master was a hunter. Then it makes perfect sense [to say that he was an expert in identifying them and their names]. But if you say his master was a sage, it is consistent to conclude that he was learned in their names. But [is it consistent to assume] that he knew how to identify them. Rather must we not then derive that his master was a hunter? We must derive it.[27]
11:20 “All winged insects that go on all fours are detestable to you. 21 Yet among the winged insects that go on all fours you may eat those that have jointed legs above their feet, with which to hop on the ground. 22 Of them you may eat: the locust of any kind, the bald locust of any kind, the cricket of any kind, and the grasshopper of any kind. 23 But all other winged insects that have four feet are detestable to you.
While many cannot relate to insects as a food group, it was considered then, and still is today by some around the world, an important source of nutrition for those who can’t afford much else. All insects that walk on four legs, except for those that have jointed legs, were not to be eaten. Insects that were permissible to eat included locusts, crickets, and grasshoppers. Later in the New Testament we read that John the Baptist lived off locusts and honey (see Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6). All other winged insects that have four feet were to be considered detestable and should not be eaten.
11:24 “And by these you shall become unclean. Whoever touches their carcass shall be unclean until the evening, 25 and whoever carries any part of their carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening. 26 Every animal that parts the hoof but is not cloven-footed or does not chew the cud is unclean to you. Everyone who touches them shall be unclean. 27 And all that walk on their paws, among the animals that go on all fours, are unclean to you. Whoever touches their carcass shall be unclean until the evening, 28 and he who carries their carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening; they are unclean to you.
Moving from the subject of what an Israelite could and should not eat, to what they should avoid touching. If one was ceremonially clean (a requirement to participate in any holy ritual or festival), and if they went through the effort to get clean, they would undoubtedly have the desire to remain clean.
The often-asked question about verse 24 is, “What does it mean by these?” Those listed before, as some believe, or those listed in verses 26 and 27. The Hebrew ‘ēl’·lě(h[28])’, appears to be using ‘these’ as a demonstrative pronoun (see examples in Genesis 6:9; Deuteronomy 27:12), therefore it would refer to the items that followed, not the preceding items.
The Hebrew in verse 26 is somewhat awkward to translate (which is probably why the translations vary significantly between English versions). The paraphrased English version of the Bible known as The Message, offers some clarity, “Every animal that has a split hoof that’s not completely divided, or that doesn’t chew the cud is unclean for you.”[29] In addition, any animals that have four feet and walk on paws are to be considered unclean.
If someone were to touch one of the dead bodies of these animals, they would be unclean until evening. If they carried any part of the dead animal, they were to wash their clothes and would unclean until evening.
11:29 “And these are unclean to you among the swarming things that swarm on the ground: the mole rat, the mouse, the great lizard of any kind, 30 the gecko, the monitor lizard, the lizard, the sand lizard, and the chameleon. 31 These are unclean to you among all that swarm. Whoever touches them when they are dead shall be unclean until the evening. 32 And anything on which any of them falls when they are dead shall be unclean, whether it is an article of wood or a garment or a skin or a sack, any article that is used for any purpose. It must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the evening; then it shall be clean.
The list of unclean animals continues with things that swarm on the ground (Hebrew ‘šě’·rěṣ’,[30] usually referring to a creature that crawls),[31] including: the mole rat (Hebrew ‘ḥō’·lěḏ’,[32] can be a number of animals including a weasel or a mole); mouse (Hebrew ‘ǎḵ˚bār’,[33] a rodent usually a mouse); great lizard (Hebrew ‘ṣāḇ’[34] can be translated as a large lizard, reptile or a tortoise); gecko (Hebrew word ‘ǎnā·qā(h)’[35] referring to a ferret or gecko); monitor lizard (Hebrew ‘kōªḥ’,[36] can refer to a lizard or reptile, however, since the noun can also describe power and strength, some believe it refers to something much bigger, like a crocodile); lizard (Hebrew ‘leṭā·’ā(h)’);[37] sand lizard (Hebrew ‘ḥō’·mět’,[38] a small lizard or skink); and the chameleon (Hebrew ‘tin·šā’·měṭ’,[39] same word found in verse 18 translated there as a barn owl, here it is a reference to the chameleon. It is believed that since the two animals make similar sounds in their breathing, they have the same name in the Hebrew language).
Anyone that touches their dead bodies is unclean until evening. Anything on which any of the dead bodies touch, regardless if made of wood, animal skin, garment, or sack (like a bag that would hold something), or anything used for any purpose, it must be washed in water. It will remain unclean until evening.
11:33 And if any of them falls into any earthenware vessel, all that is in it shall be unclean, and you shall break it. 34 Any food in it that could be eaten, on which water comes, shall be unclean. And all drink that could be drunk from every such vessel shall be unclean.
If any of these dead animals fall into an earthenware vessel, it is unclean, and the vessel is to be destroyed. If any food was in the vessel, on which water can come in contact with, it is also unclean. Any drinkable liquid would be considered unclean too. Later in Numbers 31:22, we will see that metal vessels can be purified with fire. It is interesting to note that something being wet can convey (be a carrier for) impurity, uncleanness.
11:35 And everything on which any part of their carcass falls shall be unclean. Whether oven or stove, it shall be broken in pieces. They are unclean and shall remain unclean for you. 36 Nevertheless, a spring or a cistern holding water shall be clean, but whoever touches a carcass in them shall be unclean.
Anything that comes, in contact with any part of one of these dead animals, is unclean and must be broken into pieces, including a stove or an oven. They are unclean and will remain unclean, with the exception of a spring or a cistern, which is considered clean. But if someone touches one of these dead animals while in the spring or cistern, they are unclean.
1:37 And if any part of their carcass falls upon any seed grain that is to be sown, it is clean, 38 but if water is put on the seed and any part of their carcass falls on it, it is unclean to you.
If any part of these dead animals comes in contact with any seeds to be planted for harvest, the seeds remain clean. However, if the seed has been watered and the carcass falls on it, it is unclean. Again, no transference of impurity when dry, but considered impure if the seed is wet.
11:39 “And if any animal which you may eat dies, whoever touches its carcass shall be unclean until the evening, 40 and whoever eats of its carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening. And whoever carries the carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening.
Physical contact with an animal that is considered clean and acceptable to eat, will also make one unclean. Before wondering how one eats a clean animal without touching it, we need to recognize that the context implies, that this is a reference to an animal that either died naturally or by accident (see Leviticus 17:15; Deuteronomy 14:21). Anyone that touches the carcass is unclean until evening and anyone who eats the animal shall wash their clothes and remain unclean until the evening. Plus, anyone who might carry, or move the animal, must also wash their clothes, and be considered unclean until evening.
11:41 “Every swarming thing that swarms on the ground is detestable; it shall not be eaten. 42 Whatever goes on its belly, and whatever goes on all fours, or whatever has many feet, any swarming thing that swarms on the ground, you shall not eat, for they are detestable. 43 You shall not make yourselves detestable with any swarming thing that swarms, and you shall not defile yourselves with them, and become unclean through them. 44 For I am the LORD your God. Consecrate yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy. You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming thing that crawls on the ground. 45 For I am the LORD who brought you up out of the land of Egypt to be your God. You shall therefore be holy, for I am holy.”
Everything that swarms on the ground is to be considered an abomination and should not be eaten, including those that move on their bellies, using four or more feet. The text repeats, nothing that swarms on the ground is to be eaten. God then clearly states that eating a detestable thing makes one unclean and detestable before Him. He instructs them that instead of defiling themselves, they should desire to consecrate themselves and be holy as He is holy (Hebrew phrase “heyî·ṯěm[40] qeḏō·šîm,”[41] instructions to “be holy” essentially summarizes the Torah, quoted by the apostle Peter, see 1 Peter 1:16, see also Leviticus 19:2; 20:7, 26). God concludes this section about cleanliness and remaining holy, with His familiar reminder, “For I am YHWH, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt to be your God.”[42]
11:46 This is the law about beast and bird and every living creature that moves through the waters and every creature that swarms on the ground, 47 to make a distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten.
This section closes with what might be described as its purpose statement. The instructions given in this chapter were provided to state the rules and regulations regarding interaction with the creatures on earth, to make it clear what God considered clean and those things He considered unclean, along with what could be eaten and what should not be eaten. Combining these verses with the previous two verses (44 and 45), the message tells us an important aspect of God’s love for humanity, if we stay holy, we can remain with Him, it is our disobedience that gets in the way of that fellowship, the fellowship that He desires. It is hard not to think about John 3:16 when we read passages like these.
Considerations
Verses 18 and 30 use the same Hebrew word to identify two different animals. Based on the contexts of these verses, it is clear that one is a bird and the other crawls on the ground. There is nothing to imply that it is a reference to a hybrid animal that is part bird and part land animal. Some speculate that since the word can refer to one or the other that it is a reference to the extinct archaeopteryx, being half dinosaur and half bird. That is not the case, remember that context is critical to interpret the meaning of any word in any language. Besides, there are many words that have more than one meaning.
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[1] See commentary under Genesis 7:2-3.
[2] See Considerations under Genesis 3:22-24 and Genesis 10:19-20 “Ancient Jewish Writings,” and the commentary under Genesis 4:3-5.
[3] Strong’s Hebrew 5927.
[4] Strong’s Hebrew 1625.
[5] Strong’s Hebrew 8227.
[6] Strong’s Hebrew 768.
[7] Strong’s Hebrew 5404.
[8] Strong’s Hebrew 6538.
[9] Strong’s Hebrew 5822.
[10] Strong’s Hebrew 1676.
[11] Strong’s Hebrew 344.
[12] Strong’s Hebrew 6158.
[13] Strong’s Hebrew 3284.
[14] Strong’s Hebrew 8464.
[15] Strong’s Hebrew 7828.
[16] Strong’s Hebrew 5322.
[17] Strong’s Hebrew 3563.
[18] Strong’s Hebrew 7994.
[19] Strong’s Hebrew 3244.
[20] Strong’s Hebrew 8580.
[21] Strong’s Hebrew 6893.
[22] Strong’s Hebrew 7360.
[23] Strong’s Hebrew 2624.
[24] Strong’s Hebrew 601.
[25] Strong’s Hebrew 1744.
[26] Strong’s Hebrew 5847.
[27] Neusner, J. (2011). The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary (Vol. 20, pp. 278–279). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers.
[28] Strong’s Hebrew 428.
[29] Peterson, E. H. (2005). The Message: the Bible in contemporary language (Le 11:26). Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress.
[30] Strong’s Hebrew 8318.
[31] See commentary under Genesis 1:20-23.
[32] Strong’s Hebrew 2467.
[33] Strong’s Hebrew 5909.
[34] Strong’s Hebrew 6632.
[35] Strong’s Hebrew 604.
[36] Strong’s Hebrew 3581.
[37] Strong’s Hebrew 3911.
[38] Strong’s Hebrew 2546.
[39] Strong’s Hebrew 8580.
[40] Strong’s Hebrew 1961.
[41] Strong’s Hebrew 6918.
[42] See Considerations under Exodus 12:31-32.