Appendix 1
Literary Devices in the Bible
Like most great works of literature, the Bible contains several types of figurative language. A common question that is often asked is why God would use literary devices in His Word. We need to remember that God is the creator of language and should then be considered the greatest of all authors. Why limit Him to just plain text? In a sense, by using literary devices, He implores us to explore His Word more extensively. It is true that someone could argue that some literary devices don’t always translate well or the use of some language modification can lead to confusion. However, these challenges should bring us closer to the Word through diligent study. Remember God chose His Word to reveal Himself to us. We are to grow in the knowledge of Him, not become instant authorities.
Here is an excellent explanation as to why figures of speech are used from the author and theologian Dr. E.W. Bullinger (1837-1913):
A FIGURE is simply a word or a sentence thrown into a peculiar form, different from its original or simplest meaning or use. These forms are constantly used by every speaker and writer. It is impossible to hold the simplest conversation, or to write a few sentences without, it may be unconsciously, making use of figures. We may say, “the ground needs rain”: that is a plain, cold, matter-of-fact statement; but if we say “the ground is thirsty,” we immediately use a figure. It is not true to fact, and therefore it must be a figure. But how true to feeling it is! how full of warmth and life! Hence, we say, “the crops suffer”; we speak of “a hard heart,” “a rough man,” “an iron will.” In all these cases we take a word which has a certain, definite meaning, and apply the name, or the quality, or the act, to some other thing with which it is associated, by time or place, cause or effect, relation or resemblance.[1]
Most readers are aware of the Bible’s use of common figures of speech such as metaphors, idioms, and similes, however, most are not aware of the Bible’s extensive use of literary devices. To compile a complete and exhaustive list would literally require a whole book of its own (such as Dr. E.W. Bullinger’s book, see footnotes). Here is a brief list along with references to some selected Biblical examples when applicable:
Account
An account is one of the more basic literary types as it provides a narrative description of what has happened (such as an eye-witness account) or will happen (a vision or prophetic account).
Acrostic
A poem or other literature that the leading letter of each line or sentence forms a word or is in a known particular order. Some Old Testament poetry incorporate this device by beginning each line with consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This device can only be observed in the original language, however most modern Bibles will point out this feature when it occurs. Examples: Psalm chapters 111, 112, 119 (in eight verse sections); Proverbs 31:10-31; Lamentations chapters 1, 2, 3 (group of three verses), 4.
Allegory
A story that incorporates symbols or other imagery to represent something or someone else. Can also be a representation of an abstract through tangible or physical forms. A figurative treatment of one subject under the guise of another. Examples: Psalm 80:8-13; Proverbs 7:1-27; Ecclesiastes 12:1-8; Ezekiel 23:1-49; Luke 15:3-7; 20:9-18; John 10:1-18; 1 Corinthians 3:10-15; Galatians 4:21-31; Ephesians 6:11-17.
Alliteration
The author uses the same initial consonants in the beginning of each new line or idea. Valid only in the original language.
Allusion
An indirect reference to something else. The meaning is intended to be conveyed through personal experience, cultural context or some other external knowledge common to the reader. Examples: Luke 17:32; John 8:58; 2 Corinthians 5:1; Hebrews 13:2; Revelation 12:1.
Anthropomorphism
A personification (described separately below) that ascribes human characteristics or capabilities to non-humans. The Bible often anthropomorphizes God to help us understand or relate to Him better. Examples: Genesis 6:6; Exodus 15:8; 33:23; Psalm 130:2; Isaiah 40:10-12; Zechariah 2:8; John 10:29.
Aposiopesis
Pronounced ap-uh-sahy-uh-pee-seez. A sudden breaking off in the middle of a statement or sentence, as if one should not or could not continue. Examples: Genesis 3:22-23; Exodus 32:32; Psalm 6:3; Daniel 3:15; Mark 11:32; Luke 13:9; John 6:62; Acts 23:9.
Apostrophe
Not to be confused with the symbol that has the same name. This figure of speech is an indirect form of personification where the speaker is addressing an inanimate object or someone else who cannot respond to the statement or question. Examples: 2 Samuel 1:21; 1 Kings 13:2; Psalm 43:5; 148:3-4; Isaiah 1:2; 44:23; Ezekiel 36:1, 4, 8; Zechariah 11:2; Matthew 23:37; 1 Corinthians 15:55.
Assonance
The repetition of similar sounding words typically found in poetry, only valid in the original language.
Chiasmus
Pronounced kahy-az-muhs. A literary device in which words or concepts are repeated in reverse order. Examples: Genesis 9:6; Isaiah 6:10; Matthew 19:30.
Climax
A figure of speech in which words, phrases or a series of clauses are arranged in order of importance. Examples: Hosea 2:21-23; Joel 1:3-4; John 1:4-5; Romans 5:3-5; 8:29-30; 10:14-15; James 1:14-15; 2 Peter 1:5-7.
Dark Sayings
Often referred to as a riddle, this is where the author uses enigmatic phraseology that obscures the truth requiring close examination or diligent searching to determine the meaning. Examples: Genesis 49:10; Numbers 12:8; Psalm 49:4; 78:2; Isaiah 11:1; 21:11-12; Daniel 5:25-28; Matthew 9:15-17; Luke 11:34-36.
Ellipsis
An ellipsis is more about what is missing, it effectively shortens a sentence by omitting or leaving out words that are understood by the audience, to emphasize a point. In the Bible, it is generally used to minimize a negative clause to emphasize a positive one. Many modern Bible translations fill the gap with the appropriate phrase, word, or name, often without notifying the reader (no footnote, etc.) Examples: 2 Samuel 3:7; 6:6; 1 Chronicles 16:7; Psalm 103:9; 137:5; Ezekiel 47:13; John 6:27; Acts 5:4; Romans 6:5; Hebrews 7:8; 1 John 3:18.
Euphemism
A euphemism is a device that effectively avoids an offensive or distasteful description by substituting it with an agreeable or inoffensive expression. Examples: Genesis 15:13; Leviticus 18:6; 2 Kings 22:20; Psalm 94:17; Ecclesiastes 12:2-7; John 2:25; 11:11; Acts 1:25.
Fable
A fictitious narrative intended to convey a truth or moral lesson. Fables can involve nearly anything (plant, animal, etc.) that speak and/or act like human beings. In the Bible, fables are often employed in parables (described below). Examples: Judges 9:8-21; 2 Kings 14:9-10; Ezekiel 17:2-10.
Flashback
An interruption of the chronological sequence to insert past events, generally used to provide background or context to the current events of a narrative. By using flashbacks, writers allow their readers to gain insight into a character’s motivations and provide a background to a current conflict. Examples: Genesis 31:32-34; 2 Samuel 4:4; Matthew 26:6-13.
Generalization
A general idea, principle or summary of something observed or experienced. A brief statement of the main points. Examples: Genesis 1:1; 24-31; 1 Corinthians 10:1-13.
Hyperbole
A hyperbole is an obvious and often humorous exaggeration to emphasize a point. Examples: Numbers 13:33; Deuteronomy 1:28; Judges 20:16; 2 Chronicles 1:15; Psalm 6:6; 107:26; Matthew 5:29-30; 7:4; Mark 9:43; 10:25; Luke 14:26; John 12:19; 21:25; 2 Corinthians 11:8.
Idiom
This is a figure of speech or expression that is unique to a specific culture and language, which is often confusing or incomprehensible outside the culture. Examples: Genesis 22:17; Exodus 3:8; Psalm 17:8; Jeremiah 6:10; Ezekiel 3:7; Matthew 23:24; Revelation 7:1.
Imagery
The use of vivid or figurative language to represent objects, ideas or actions. Examples: Genesis 1:16; Psalm 45:13-14; Isaiah 25:6-8; Matthew 10:42; Acts 2:24; 1 Corinthians 10:4; Revelation 12:1; 21:1-4.
Irony
An expression that denotes the opposite of what is meant by the definition of the words alone. Examples: Deuteronomy 32:37-38; Judges 10:14; 1 Kings 18:27; Job 12:2; Isaiah 57:13; Amos 4:4-5; Zechariah 11:13; John 19:14; 2 Corinthians 11:19; 12:13.
Litotes
Pronounced lahy-tuh-teez. A statement that is belittling or a negative expression. Often implying an affirmative by a negative or contrary term. Examples: Genesis 18:27; 1 Samuel 24:14; Psalm 22:6; Isaiah 40:15; Acts 20:12; 21:39.
Merism
Pronounced meri-zuh-m. A listing of opposite or contrasting parts that stand for the whole, such as “night and day” referring to the whole day, considered a variation of a synecdoche (described below). Examples: Genesis 1:1, 5; 3:5; Psalms 91:5-6; 139:2-3.
Metaphor
Widely used in the Bible, a metaphor is typically defined as a direct comparison between two unlike items or an abridged simile (separately described below), where the comparative words (like, as, similar to, etc.) are usually omitted. Examples: 2 Samuel 22:3; Psalm 17:8; 23:1; 100:3; Proverbs 15:19; Jeremiah 2:13; Matthew 7:7-8; Mark 14:22; John 10:15-16; James 3:6; Revelation 1:20. Perhaps the most well-known use of metaphors in the Bible would be the seven “I Am” discourses in John 6:35; 8:12; 10:9, 11; 11:25; 14:6 and 15:1.
Metonymy
Pronounced mi-ton-uh-mee. A metaphor where one item or concept is used to signify another that is closely related to, or associated with, the item or concept. The association allows one to be used interchangeably. In some cases, it is allowable to use a literal item to metaphorically refer to an abstract item or concept. Examples: Genesis 42:38; Leviticus 26:6; Proverbs 23:26; Hosea 1:2; Matthew 3:5; 23:22; Luke 1:64; 16:29; John 6:53-55; Romans 3:30; 2 Corinthians 3:15-16; Ephesians 6:16; James 1:27; Revelation 1:18.
Narrative
Basic storytelling, a report of connected events. The narrative is the most common literary form in the Bible.
Numerology
Numbers can be used as symbols. In the Bible, numerology is limited to a few theological significant numbers and should not be applied to every number. The principle of expositional constancy can be applied to determine how a number is consistently used in Scripture.
Onomastics
Pronounced on-uh-mas-tiks. Names that reflect the nature or character of the person, only applicable in the original language.
Parables
Also known as a didactic or instructional simile. In the Bible parables typically convey or emphasize a single point. There are two common errors in interpreting New Testament parables: 1) trying to find an application to every item or detail in the story; and 2) belief that parables were used to communicate a message to the general population. Jesus spoke in parables to convey truths that would require “insider information” or special knowledge, which were only accessible through the Holy Spirit. Much of His audience had no clue what He was talking about. Examples: 2 Samuel 12:1-6; Matthew 13:10-17; 21:33-46; Mark 4:10-12, 33-34; Luke 10:25-37.
Paradox
A statement that contains seemingly illogical or two or more contradictory elements, that ultimately convey a truth. Often used to challenge the reader to think through the content of the message more thoroughly. Examples: Matthew 10:39; 16:25; Mark 9:35; 10:31; John 3:3.
Parallelism
Repeated similarities introduced for rhetorical effect. In the Bible, a parallelism can appear in the same or adjoining verses. Examples: Isaiah 5:20-21; Matthew 7:7-8; 10:27; Luke 8:17.
Pleonasm
Pronounced plee-uh-naz-uhm. The use of excessive number of words to convey a message, usually to emphasize a point. Examples: Genesis 38:1, 24; 40:23; 42:2; Exodus 12:20; Judges 11:3; 2 Kings 20:1; Acts 2:30.
Personification
Something inanimate is given human form or characteristics. Examples: Leviticus 18:25, 28; Job 28:22; Psalm 77:16; Proverbs 1:20-21; 8:1-3; 9:1-6; Joel 1:10; Matthew 6:3, 34; Romans 10:6; 1 Corinthians 12:15-16.
Prolepsis
Pronounced proh-lep-sis. To present or assume a future event or action as if it had already occurred or the results already exists. Usually through the application of adjective to a noun in anticipation of the result of the action of the verb. In the Bible, this device is often used to connect two events separated in time for explanatory purposes or to give the impression they occurred simultaneously. Examples: 1 Corinthians 10:2-4; Hebrews 11:26.
Pun (see Word Play below)
Repetition
The author chooses to repeat the same word, phrase or expression to emphasize a point. Examples: Exodus 3:4; Deuteronomy 28:3-6; Psalm 22:1; 77:16; 96:13; 136:1-26; Matthew 5:3-11; Mark 15:34; Romans 8:38-39; 1 Corinthians 12:8-10; 13:7.
Sarcasm
The use of irony by saying one thing and meaning something entirely different. Often used as a form of humor (usually acerbic), sarcasm implies the opposite of what the words or expression typically mean. Examples: 1 Kings 22:15-16; John 1:45-46; Galatians 2:15-16; 5:12. The Bible reminds us that sarcasm is not something Christians should employ (Matthew 5:22, 37; Ephesians 4:29; 5:4)
Satire
Closely related to hyperbole and sarcasm, satire holds up human vices and follies to ridicule or scorn, used typically to expose foolishness. Examples: 1 Kings 18:27; Isaiah 40:19-20; Jeremiah 46:11; Matthew 7:5; 23:3-7, 27; 1 Corinthians 4:8-13.
Simile
An explicit comparison between two unlike things that are usually combined with words such as ‘like’ or ‘as’. Examples: Proverbs 10:26; Isaiah 1:8; 40:6; 53:6; Malachi 3:2; Matthew 24:27; 28:3; Luke 10:3; 22:44; 1 Corinthians 13:11; 1 Thessalonians 5:2; James 1:23-24; 1 Peter 1:24-25.
Symbolism
A symbol represents something else. Symbolic language can use a sign, object, color, number or even an action to stand for or represent a concept. Examples: Exodus 13:21-22; Leviticus 17:11; Deuteronomy 12:23-25; Jeremiah 1:13; 13:1-11; 24:1-10; Ezekiel 37:1-14; Daniel 2:31-45; Amos 8:1-3; Zechariah 1:18-19; 5:1-4; Revelation 1:20; 8:1-5; 13:1. The interpretation of symbolism found in Scripture requires diligent study of the Bible itself. Here again the principle of expositional constancy should be applied to determine from within the Word of God, the proper interpretation. Scholars of eschatology are often misled by attempting to use external or worldly symbols to interpret prophecy.
Synecdoche
Pronounced si-nek-duh-kee. A part of something that is used to represent the whole or vice versa. A synecdoche is similar to a metonym with the difference being that in metonymy the words are linked to the concept but is typically not part of it. Examples: Genesis 6:12; 2 Kings 8:9; Psalms 145:21; Luke 12:19; John 3:16; 12:19; Ephesians 4:1; 6:12; Colossians 1:10; 2 Timothy 3:16; 1 Peter 1:9; 3:18.
Telescoping
A method employed by an author to compress time, often by presenting the main idea with no explanation, requiring the audience to know the subject well enough to fill in the otherwise missing or necessary details. Examples: Mark 1:12-13; Mark 1:29-31.
Type
Also known as a ‘Model’, the subject of a type can be a person, thing, position, symbol or event that is a foreshadow of the future (a precursor). The Bible contains several types, especially in the Old Testament pointing to people and events in the New Testament. Examples: Genesis 14:18-20; Exodus 17:6; Psalm 22:1-21; 69:7, 9, 20; 110:4; John 3:14-15; Romans 5:14; 15:3; 1 Corinthians 3:16-17; 10:1-11; 15:45; 2 Corinthians 6:16-18; the book of Hebrews explains several types, note especially chapters 5, 7, 8 and 9.
Word Play
A play on words, or pun, is the use of words to suggest a different meaning (often humorous). Examples: Micah 1:11; Matthew 8:22; 15:21-28; 16:18; Philemon 1:10-11. The concept does not always transfer when translated.
Zeugma
Pronounced zoog-muh. The use of a word to modify two or more words, but only is appropriate to one of the words or is appropriate to each word differently. Examples: Exodus 3:16; 20:18; Deuteronomy 4:12; 2 Kings 11:12; 1 Corinthians 14:34; 1 Timothy 4:3.
Summary
Hopefully that wasn’t too painful to process, all Bible readers should be aware of literary devices and the various figures of speech, however, none of them should be explored or examined to the point that the message of God’s Word is lost, distorted, or denied. Literary devices should truly enhance our time with the Word, not distract us from it. Continuing from the above excerpt:
Some figures are common to many languages; others are peculiar to some one language. There are figures used in the English language, which have nothing that answers to them in Hebrew or Greek; and there are Oriental figures which have no counterpart in English; while there are some figures in various languages, arising from human infirmity and folly, which find, of course, no place in the word of God.
It may be asked, “How are we to know, then, when words are to be taken in their simple, original form (i.e., literally), and when they are to be taken in some other and peculiar form (i.e., as a Figure)?” The answer is that, whenever and wherever it is possible, the words of Scripture are to be understood literally, but when a statement appears to be contrary to our experience, or to known fact, or revealed truth; or seems to be at variance with the general teaching of the Scriptures, then we may reasonably expect that some figure is employed. And as it is employed only to call our attention to some specially designed emphasis, we are at once bound to diligently examine the figure for the purpose of discovering and learning the truth that is thus emphasized.
From non-attention to these Figures, translators have made blunders as serious as they are foolish. Sometimes they have translated the figure literally, totally ignoring its existence; sometimes they have taken it fully into account, and have translated, not according to the letter, but according to the spirit; sometimes they have taken literal words and translated them figuratively. Commentators and interpreters, from inattention to the figures, have been led astray from the real meaning of many important passages of God’s Word; while ignorance of them has been the fruitful parent of error and false doctrine. It may be truly said that most of the gigantic errors of Rome, as well as the erroneous and conflicting views of the Lord’s People, have their root and source, either in figuratively explaining away passages which should be taken literally, or in taking literally what has been thrown into a peculiar form or Figure of language: thus, not only falling into error, but losing the express teaching, and missing the special emphasis which the particular Figure was designed to impart to them.
This is an additional reason for using greater exactitude and care when we are dealing with the words of God. Man’s words are scarcely worthy of such study. Man uses figures, but often at random and often in ignorance or in error. But “the words of the Lord are pure words.” All His works are perfect, and when the Holy Spirit takes up and uses human words, He does so, we may be sure, with unerring accuracy, infinite wisdom, and perfect beauty.
We may well, therefore, give all our attention to “the words which the Holy Ghost teacheth.”[2]
[1] Bullinger, E. W. (1898). Figures of speech used in the Bible (p. xv). London; New York: Eyre & Spottiswoode; E. & J. B. Young & Co.
[2] Bullinger, E. W. (1898). Figures of speech used in the Bible (pp. xv–xvi). London; New York: Eyre & Spottiswoode; E. & J. B. Young & Co.